This section has been adapted from Wildlife-Habitat Relationships in Oregon and Washington (Johnson and O'Neil, OSU Press. 2001). It offers detailed descriptions of each wildlife-habitat type to support a common understanding for their delineation, inventory, and management across the Pacific Northwest. These wildlife-habitat types update and expand the prior regional works of Thomas (1979), Maser (1984), and Brown (1985) and for the first time give a complete three-state+ perspective. For a description of how these wildlife-habitat types were determined, please see Chapter 1 in Wildlife-Habitat Relationships in Oregon and Washington (Johnson and O'Neil, 2001).

Each wildlife habitat below is described as to its geographic distribution, physical setting, landscape setting, structure, and composition. Additionally, we include other information that might help managers, researchers, and others gain further insight into each habitat, like listing other classifications systems and key references, natural disturbance regimes, succession and stand dynamics, effects of management and anthropogenic impacts, and its status and trends. Importantly, we have included photographs of each wildlife-habitat type to give the reader an idea of what each habitat type looks like, multiple photographs are offered for most habitats, to depict some of the variability (vegetationally or structurally) that exist within each type. Each of the habitats below (Table 1) is numbered. The descriptions in this section reflect the same numbering sequence and can be viewed by clicking on each wildlife-habitat type name in Table 1 below. The authorsof this section reference over 200 literature citations in these descriptions.

Table 1. The 32 wildlife-habitats and their total acreage in Oregon and Washington (Idaho and parts of other Northwest states to come later). The marine waters extend out to the 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zone.

Wildlife-Habitat	Oregon Total Acreage	Washington Total Acreage
1. Westside Lowlands Conifer-Hardwood Forest	9,349,756	9,064,128
2. Westside Oak and Dry Douglas-fir Forest & Woodlands	433,132	425,038
3. Southwest Oregon Mixed Conifer-Hardwood Forest	4,020,321	Does Not Occur
4. Montane Mixed Conifer Forest	2,949,586	4,653,306
5. Eastside (Interior) Mixed Conifer Forest	4,126,957	4,662,101
6. Lodgepole Pine Forest and Woodlands	532,587	119,201
7. Ponderosa Pine Forest and Woodlands	6,226,351	1,927,176
8. Upland Aspen Forest	19,685	100,621
9. Subalpine Parkland	84,240	327,442
10. Alpine Grassland and Shrublands	291,494	1,591,115
11. Westside Grasslands	1331	22,491
12. Ceanothus-Manzanita Shrublands	52,104	Does Not Occur
13. Western Juniper and Mountain Mahogany Woodlands	4,037,221	Does Not Occur
14. Eastside (Interior) Canyon Shrublands	358,250	Not Mapped2
15. Eastside (Interior) Grasslands	1,935,794	1,002,076
16. Shrub-Steppe	17,420,753	7,144,697
17. Dwarf Shrub-Steppe	514,066	Not Mapped3
18. Desert Playa and Salt Scrub Shrublands	719,503	Not Mapped3
19. Agriculture, Pasture and Mixed Environs	6,197,887	9,251,107
20. Urban and Mixed Environs	575,087	1,204,680
21. Open Water - Lakes, Rivers, Streams	780,901	761,360
22. Herbaceous Wetlands	1,031,343	210,451
23. Westside Riparian-Wetlands	168,872	347,653
24. Montane Coniferous Wetlands	56,099	241,450
25. Eastside (Interior) Riparian-Wetlands	31,121	100,763
26. Coastal Dunes and Beaches	52,451	Not Mapped3
27. Coastal Headlands and Islets	9,137	7,776
28. Bays and Estuaries	172,748	226,336
29. Inland Marine Deeper Water	Does Not Occur	1,855,780
30. Marine Nearshore	223,371	750,329
31. Marine Shelf	3,905,164	4,780,625
32. Oceanic	33,987,189	19,845,660
Totals	100,263,303	70,532,093

¹ Because of difficulty in classifying this type using remote sensing (i.e., discerning native grasslands from pasture lands) native westside grasslands have inadvertently been classified within the agriculture habitat type. Nonetheless, there are few areas known to be native westside grasslands.
² This type was only recognized along the Oregon and Washington border, otherwise it was not part of the vegetation classification when the Washington Gap Project mapped the state of Washington. Thus, no wildlife habitat area was determined.
³ This type was not part of the vegetation classification when the Washington Gap Project mapped the state of Washington. Thus, no wildlife habitat area was determined.

The following are definitions of each category used to characterize the wildlife-habitat types:

Geographic Distribution. Describes the broad geographic range within which the habitat is located, both within Oregon and Washington and elsewhere.

Physical Setting. Describes physical features of the environment on sites where the habitat is found in Oregon and Washington. These typically include climate, elevation, soils, hydrology, geology, and topography.

Landscape Setting. Describes the landscape pattern and distribution of the habitat in relation to other habitats. Primary land use is also noted.

Structure. Describes the physical structure of the habitat, both its typical aspect and the range of variation in structure present within the habitat. Aspects of physical structure include some description of cover or density (horizontal dimension) of vegetation or sessile invertebrate communities; layering (vertical dimension) of vegetation or sessile invertebrate communities; dominant growth forms, leaf phenologies (evergreen or deciduous), leaf characters (conifer or broadleaf), and vegetation persistence (annual or perennial) represented in different structural layers; and significant structural components of dead and decaying vegetation. Growth forms include trees, shrubs (>1.6 ft [0.5 m] tall), dwarf-shrubs (<1.6 ft [0.5 m] tall), graminoids (grasses, sedges, rushes), forbs, ferns, mosses, lichens, algae, and marine invertebrates. Vegetation cover categories frequently referred to include forest (>60% cover of trees), woodland (25-60% cover of trees), shrubland (>25% cover of shrubs), dwarf-shrubland (>25% cover of dwarf-shrubs), and grassland (graminoids dominant). Water-dominated habitats (e.g., marine and open water) may be described in terms of the physical aspects of the water column and the bottom substrate of the habitat.

Composition. Describes the species composition of the vegetation or sessile invertebrate communities that create structure. Composition is described as dominant, co-dominant (shares dominance with ³1 species), or important indicator species by structural layer. English names for all vertebrates are used in the text and corresponding standard names are in Appendix I. The geographic distribution or physical setting is noted for those dominant species that occur only in particular physical settings or specific geographic areas of the overall habitat’s range of occurrence.

Other Classifications and Key References. Notes other names that have been applied to this habitat by other classifications or major summary publications and important references that describe the habitat or parts of the habitat in greater detail.

Natural Disturbance Regime. Describes the major natural disturbances that are important in the habitat. The regime includes the disturbance type, severity, frequency, extent, and range of variation in these characteristics.

Succession and Stand Dynamics. Describes the way in which structure and composition change over time in relation to natural disturbances.

Effects of Management and Anthropogenic Impacts. Describes typical changes in structure and composition observed after typical management activities (human disturbances) and widespread changes in the habitat that have occurred since Euro-American settlement. Disturbances addressed include land uses that do not necessarily convert the habitat to urban or agriculture, but have a significant influence on structure or composition, e.g., hydrologic alterations, logging, and grazing. Exotic species that have become abundant in the habitat are noted.

Status and Trends. Describes the general extent of the type in Oregon and Washington (Idaho and parts of other states to come later), its current ecological condition, and historical and current trends in extent and condition. Ecological condition refers primarily to how similar the current structure, composition, and disturbance regime is to natural or pre-settlement conditions. The total number of plant associations recognized in the habitat and the number of those that are considered globally imperiled provide some idea of the degree of loss, degradation, and threat that is associated with the habitat.

Christopher B. Chappell, Washington Department of Natural Resources, PO Box 47016, Olympia, WA 98504
Rex C. Crawford, Washington Department of Natural Resources, PO Box 47016, Olympia, WA 98504
Charley Barrett, Northwest Habitat Institute, P.O. Box 855, Corvallis, OR 97339-0855
Jimmy Kagan, Oregon Natural Heritage Program, 1205 NW 25th Avenue Portland, OR 97210
David H. Johnson, Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife, 600 Capitol Way N., Olympia, WA 98501-1091
Mikell O’Mealy, OSU, Marine Resource Management, Ocean Admin. Bldg, Room 104, Corvallis, OR 97331-5503
Greg A. Green, Parametrix Inc., 5808 Lake Washington Boulevard NE, Kirkland, WA 98033
Howard L. Ferguson, Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife, N. 8702 Division Street, Spokane, WA 99218
W. Daniel Edge, Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97330
Eva L. Greda, Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife, 600 Capitol Way North, Olympia, WA 98501-1091
Thomas A. O’Neil, Northwest Habitat Institute, P.O. Box 855, Corvallis, OR 97339-0855

Christopher B. Chappell and Jimmy Kagan

Geographic Distribution. This forest habitat occurs throughout low-elevation western Washington, except on extremely dry or wet sites. In Oregon it occurs on the western slopes of the Cascades, around the margins of the Willamette Valley, in the Coast Range, and along the outer coast. The global distribution extends from southeastern Alaska south to southwestern Oregon.

Physical Setting. Climate is relatively mild and moist to wet. Mean annual precipitation is mostly 35-100 inches (90-254 cm), but can vary locally. Snowfall ranges from rare to regular, but is transitory. Summers are relatively dry. Summer fog is a major factor on the outer coast in the Sitka spruce zone. Elevation ranges from sea level to a maximum of about 2,000 ft (610 m) in much of northern Washington and 3,500 ft (1,067 m) in central Oregon. Soils and geology are very diverse. Topography ranges from relatively flat glacial till plains to steep mountainous terrain.

Landscape Setting. This is the most extensive habitat in the lowlands on the westside of the Cascades, except in southwestern Oregon, and forms the matrix within which other habitats occur as patches, especially Westside Riparian-Wetlands and less commonly Herbaceous Wetlands or Open Water. It also occurs adjacent to or in a mosaic with Urban and Mixed Environs (hereafter Urban) or Agriculture, Pasture and Mixed Environs (hereafter Agriculture) habitats. In the driest areas, it occurs adjacent to or in a mosaic with Westside Oak and Dry Douglas-fir Forest and Woodlands. Bordering this habitat at upper elevations is Montane Mixed Conifer Forest. Along the coastline, it often occurs adjacent to Coastal Dunes and Beaches. In southwestern Oregon, it may border Southwest Oregon Mixed Conifer-Hardwood Forest. The primary land use for this habitat is forestry.

Structure. This habitat is forest, or rarely woodland, dominated by evergreen conifers, deciduous broadleaf trees, or both. Late seral stands typically have an abundance of large (>164 ft [50 m] tall) coniferous trees, a multi-layered canopy structure, large snags, and many large logs on the ground. Early seral stands typically have smaller trees, single-storied canopies, and may be dominated by conifers, broadleaf trees, or both. Coarse woody debris is abundant in early seral stands after natural disturbances but much less so after clearcutting. Forest understories are structurally diverse: evergreen shrubs tend to dominate on nutrient-poor or drier sites; deciduous shrubs, ferns, and/or forbs tend to dominate on relatively nutrient-rich or moist sites. Shrubs may be low (1.6 ft [0.5 m] tall), medium-tall (3.3-6.6 ft [1-2 m]), or tall (6.6-13.1 ft [2-4 m]). Almost all structural stages are represented in the successional sequence within this habitat. Mosses are often a major ground cover. Lichens are abundant in the canopy of old stands.

Composition. Western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) and Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) are the most characteristic species and 1 or both are typically present. Most stands are dominated by 1 or more of the following: Douglas-fir, western hemlock, western redcedar (Thuja plicata), Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis), red alder (Alnus rubra), or bigleaf maple (Acer macrophyllum). Trees of local importance that may be dominant include Port-Orford cedar (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana) in the south, shore pine (Pinus contorta var. contorta) on stabilized dunes, and grand fir (Abies grandis) in drier climates. Western white pine (Pinus monticola) is frequent but subordinate in importance through much of this habitat. Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis) is largely absent except on the wettest low-elevation portion of the western Olympic Peninsula, where it is common and sometimes co-dominant. Common small subcanopy trees are cascara buckthorn (Rhamnus purshiana) in more moist climates and Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia) in somewhat drier climates or sites.

Sitka spruce is found as a major species only in the outer coastal area at low elevations where summer fog is a significant factor. Bigleaf maple is most abundant in the Puget Lowland, around the Willamette Valley, and in the central Oregon Cascades, but occurs elsewhere also. Douglas-fir is absent to uncommon as a native species in the very wet maritime outer coastal area of Washington, including the coastal plain on the west side of the Olympic Peninsula. However, it has been extensively planted in that area. Port-Orford cedar occurs only in southern Oregon. Paper birch (Betula papyrifera) occurs as a co-dominant only in Whatcom County, Washington. Grand fir occurs as an occasional co-dominant only in the Puget Lowland and Willamette Valley.

Dominant or co-dominant understory shrub species of more than local importance include salal (Gaultheria shallon), dwarf Oregongrape (Mahonia nervosa), vine maple (Acer circinatum), Pacific rhododendron (Rhododendron macrophyllum), salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis), trailing blackberry (R. ursinus), red elderberry (Sambucus racemosa), fools huckleberry (Menziesia ferruginea), beargrass (Xerophyllum tenax), oval-leaf huckleberry (Vaccinium ovalifolium), evergreen huckleberry (V. ovatum), and red huckleberry (V. parvifolium). Salal and rhododendron are particularly associated with low nutrient or relatively dry sites.

Swordfern (Polystichum munitum) is the most common herbaceous species and is often dominant on nitrogen-rich or moist sites. Other forbs and ferns that frequently dominate the understory are Oregon oxalis (Oxalis oregana), deerfern (Blechnum spicant), bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum), vanillaleaf (Achlys triphylla), twinflower (Linnaea borealis), false lily-of-the-valley (Maianthemum dilatatum), western springbeauty (Claytonia siberica), foamflower (Tiarella trifoliata), inside-out flower (Vancouveria hexandra), and common whipplea (Whipplea modesta).

Other Classifications and Key References. This habitat includes most of the forests and their successional seres within the Tsuga heterophylla and Picea sitchensis zones ⁸⁸. This habitat is also referred to as Douglas-fir-western hemlock and Sitka spruce-western hemlock forests ⁸⁷, spruce-cedar-hemlock forest (Picea-Thuja-Tsuga, No. 1) and cedar-hemlock-Douglas-fir forest (Thuja-Tsuga-Pseudotsuga, No. 2) ¹³⁶. The Oregon Gap II Project ¹²⁶ and Oregon Vegetation Landscape-Level Cover Types ¹²⁷ would crosswalk with Sitka spruce-western hemlock maritime forest, Douglas-fir-western hemlock-red cedar forest, red alder forest, red alder-bigleaf maple forest, mixed conifer/mixed deciduous forest, south coast mixed-deciduous forest, and coastal lodgepole forest. The Washington Gap Vegetation map includes this vegetation as conifer forest, mixed hardwood/conifer forest, and hardwood forest in the Sitka spruce, western hemlock, Olympic Douglas-fir, Puget Sound Douglas-fir, Cowlitz River and Willamette Valley zones ³⁷. A number of other references describe elements of this habitats ^{13, 25, 26, 40, 42, 66, 90, 104, 110, 111, 114, 115, 210}.

Natural Disturbance Regime. Fire is the major natural disturbance in all but the wettest climatic area (Sitka spruce zone), where wind becomes the major source of natural disturbance. Natural fire-return intervals generally range from about 100 years or less in the driest areas to several hundred years ^{1, 115, 160}. Mean fire-return interval for the western hemlock zone as a whole is 250 years, but may vary greatly. Major natural fires are associated with occasional extreme weather conditions ¹. Fires are typically high-severity, with few trees surviving. However, low- and moderate-severity fires that leave partial to complete live canopies are not uncommon, especially in drier climatic areas. Occasional major windstorms hit outer coastal forests most intensely, where fires are rare. Severity of wind disturbance varies greatly, with minor events being extremely frequent and major events occurring once every few decades. Bark beetles and fungi are significant causes of mortality that typically operate on a small scale. Landslides are another natural disturbance that occur in some areas.

Succession and Stand Dynamics. After a severe fire or blowdown, a typical stand will be briefly occupied by annual and perennial ruderal forbs and grasses as well as predisturbance understory shrubs and herbs that resprout ¹⁰². Herbaceous species generally give way to dominance by shrubs or a mixture of shrubs and young trees within a few years. If shrubs are dense and trees did not establish early, the site may remain as a shrubland for an indeterminate period. Early seral tree species can be any of the potential dominants for the habitat, depending on environment, type of disturbance, and seed source. All of these species except the short-lived red alder are capable of persisting for at least a few hundred years. Douglas-fir is the most common dominant after fire, but is uncommon in the wettest zones. It is also the most fire resistant of the trees in this habitat and survives moderate-severity fires well. After the tree canopy closes, the understory may become sparse, corresponding with the stem-exclusion stage ¹⁶⁸. Eventually tree density will decrease and the understory will begin to flourish again, typically at stand age 60-100 years. As trees grow larger and a new generation of shade-tolerant understory trees (usually western hemlock, less commonly western redcedar) grows up, a multi-layered canopy will gradually develop and be well expressed by stand age 200-400 years ⁸⁹. Another fire is likely to return before the loss of shade-intolerant Douglas-fir from the canopy at stand age 800-1,000 years, unless the stand is located in the wet maritime zone. Throughout this habitat, western hemlock tends to increase in importance as stand development proceeds. Coarse woody debris peaks in abundance in the first 50 years after a fire and is least abundant at about stand age 100-200 years ¹⁹³.

Effects of Management and Anthropogenic Impacts. Red alder is more successful after typical logging disturbance than after fire alone on moist, nutrient-rich sites, perhaps because of the species’ ability to establish abundantly on scarified soils ¹⁰⁰. Alder is much more common now because of large-scale logging activities ⁸⁷. Alder grows more quickly in height early in succession than the conifers, thereby prompting many forest managers to apply herbicides for alder control. If alder is allowed to grow and dominate early successional stands, it will decline in importance after about 70 years and die out completely by age 100. Often there are suppressed conifers in the subcanopy that potentially can respond to the death of the alder canopy. However, salmonberry sometimes forms a dense shrub layer under the alder, which can exclude conifer regeneration ⁸⁸. Salmonberry responds positively to soil disturbance, such as that associated with logging ¹⁹. Bigleaf maple sprouts readily after logging and is therefore well adapted to increase after disturbance as well. Clearcut logging and plantation forestry have resulted in less diverse tree canopies, and have focused mainly on Douglas-fir, with reductions in coarse woody debris over natural levels, a shortened stand initiation phase, and succession truncated well before late-seral characteristics are expressed. Douglas-fir has been almost universally planted, even in wet coastal areas of Washington, where it is rare in natural stands.

Status and Trends. Extremely large areas of this habitat remain. Some loss has occurred, primarily to development in the Puget Lowland. Condition of what remains has been degraded by industrial forest practices at both the stand and landscape scale. Most of the habitat is probably now in Douglas-fir plantations. Only a fraction of the original old-growth forest remains, mostly in national forests in the Cascade and Olympic mountains. Areal extent continues to be reduced gradually, especially in the Puget Lowland. An increase in alternative silviculture practices may be improving structural and species diversity in some areas. However, intensive logging of natural-origin mature and young stands and even small areas of old growth continues. Of the 62 plant associations representing this habitat listed in the National Vegetation Classification, 27 percent are globally imperiled or critically imperiled ¹⁰.

 

Christopher B. Chappell and Jimmy Kagan

Geographic Distribution. This forest and woodland habitat is primarily found in the Willamette Valley, Puget Lowlands, and Klamath Mountains ecoregions. In the Puget Lowlands, it is common in and around the San Juan Islands and parts of Thurston, Pierce, and Mason counties. In southwestern Oregon, it is now restricted mainly to the valleys of the Rogue and Umpqua rivers. Minor occurrences can also be found in the northeastern Olympic Mountains and western Cascades.

This habitat is comprised of several geographic variants: California black oak and ponderosa pine are important only in southwestern Oregon and the southern Willamette Valley. The latter is also found in a small area of Pierce County, Washington. Shore pine is only important in the Puget Lowland, mainly in San Juan and Mason counties, and is often absent near saltwater shores. Dry Douglas-fir forests (without oak or madrone) are mainly in the Puget Lowland and rarely in the Olympic Mountains, west Cascades, and Willamette Valley. Pacific madrone and Douglas-fir/Pacific madrone stands without oak are limited to the Puget Lowland and the southern Willamette Valley foothills. Mixed oak-madrone stands occur primarily in Oregon, especially southwestern Oregon.

Physical Setting. This habitat typically occupies dry sites west of the Cascades. Annual mean precipitation ranges from 17 to 60 inches (43 to 152 cm), occasionally higher. Elevation ranges from sea level to about 3,500 ft (1,069 m) in the Olympic Mountains, but is mainly below 1,500 ft (457 m). Topography ranges from nearly level to very steep slopes, where aspect tends to be southern or western. Soils on dry sites are typically shallow over bedrock, very stony, or very deep and excessively drained. Willamette Valley soils are typically much older and have more moderate drainage and water availability. Parent materials include various types of bedrock, shallow or very coarse glacial till, alluvium, and glacial outwash.

Landscape Setting. This habitat is found in a mosaic with, or adjacent to, Westside Grasslands, Westside Lowlands Conifer-Hardwood Forest, Westside Riparian-Wetlands, Southwest Oregon Mixed Conifer-Hardwood Forest, Urban, and Agriculture. Inclusions of Open Water or Herbaceous Wetlands sometimes occur. In the Puget Lowland, this habitat is sometimes found adjacent to Puget Sound (Nearshore Marine). Land use of this habitat includes forestry (generally small scale), livestock grazing, and low-density rural residential.

Structure. This is a forest or woodland dominated by evergreen conifers, deciduous broadleaf trees, evergreen broadleaf trees, or some mixture of conifers and broadleaf trees. Canopy structure varies from single- to multi-storied. Large conifers, when present, typically emerge above broadleaf trees in mixed canopy stands. Large snags and logs are less abundant than in other westside forest habitats, but can be prominent, especially in unlogged old stands. Understories vary in structure: grasses, shrubs, ferns, or some combination will typically dominate. Deciduous broadleaf shrubs are perhaps most typical as understory dominants in the existing landscape. Early successional stand structure varies depending on understory species present and if initiated following logging or fire.

Composition. The canopy is typically dominated by 1 or more of the following species: Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), Oregon white oak (Quercus garryana), Pacific madrone (Arbutus menziesii), shore pine (Pinus contorta var. contorta), or California black oak (Q. kelloggii). Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) is important in southwestern Oregon and the southern Willamette Valley as a subordinate or co-dominant with oak. Grand fir (Abies grandis) is occasionally co-dominant with Douglas-fir in the northern Puget Lowland or in the Willamette Valley. Oregon ash (Fraxinus latifolia) is occasionally co-dominant with white oak in riparian oak stands. Several other tree species may be present, but western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) and western redcedar (Thuja plicata) generally cannot regenerate successfully because of dry conditions. This lack of shade-tolerant tree regeneration, along with understory indicators like tall Oregongrape (Mahonia aquifolium) and blue wildrye (Elymus glaucus), help distinguish dry Douglas-fir forests from mid-seral Douglas-fir stands on more mesic sites, which are part of the Westside Lowlands Conifer-Hardwood Forest. Tree regeneration, when present, is typically Douglas-fir, less commonly grand fir. Sweet cherry (Prunus avium) and/or English hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) have invaded and now dominate a subcanopy layer in many oak forests of the Willamette Valley.

Deciduous shrubs that commonly dominate or co-dominate the understory are oceanspray (Holodiscus discolor), baldhip rose (Rosa gymnocarpa), poison-oak (Toxicodendron diversiloba), serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia), beaked hazel (Corylus cornuta), trailing blackberry (Rubus ursinus), Indian plum (Oemleria cerasiformis), snowberries (Symphoricarpos albus and s. mollis), wedge-leaf ceanothus (Ceanothus cuneatus), and oval-leaf viburnum (Viburnum ellipticum). Evergreen shrubs or vines that sometimes are dominant where conifers are important in the canopy include salal (Gaultheria shallon), dwarf Oregongrape (Mahonia nervosa), Pacific rhododendron (Rhododendron macrophyllum), hairy honeysuckle (Lonicera hispidula), evergreen huckleberry (Vaccinium ovatum), and Piper’s barberry (Mahonia piperiana).

Native graminoids that commonly dominate or co-dominate the understory are western fescue (Festuca occidentalis), Alaska oniongrass (Melica subulata), blue wildrye, and long-stolon sedge (Carex inops). Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis) is a major non-native dominant in oak woodland understories. Swordfern (Polystichum munitum) or, less commonly, bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum) sometimes co-dominates the understory, especially on sites that formerly supported grasslands and savannas. Forbs, many of which are characteristic of these dry sites, are often abundant and diverse, but typically do not dominate. Common camas (Camassia quamash), cleavers (Galium aparine), or other forbs are occasionally co-dominant with graminoids.

Other Classifications and Key References. This habitat has been described as oak groves and dry site Douglas-fir forest in the Tsuga heterophylla zone of western Washington and northwestern Oregon as well as oak woodland in the interior valleys of western Oregon ⁸⁸. Also referred to as Oregon oakwoods No. 22 and a minor part of Cedar-hemlock-Douglas-fir forest No. 2 ¹³⁶; The Oregon Gap II Project ¹²⁶ and Oregon Vegetation Landscape-Level Cover Types ¹²⁷ that would represent this type are Oregon white oak forest and Douglas-fir/white oak forest. The Washington Gap Project represents this habitat as part of hardwood forest, mixed hardwood/conifer forest, and conifer forest in the Woodland/Prairie Mosaic, Puget Sound Douglas-fir, and, to a minor degree, Cowlitz River, and Willamette Valley zones of Washington ³⁷. Other references also describe elements of this habitat ^{13, 17, 40, 41, 86, 111, 115, 202, 210}.

Natural Disturbance Regime. Fire is the major natural disturbance in this habitat. In presettlement times, fire frequency probably ranged from frequent (every few years) to moderately frequent (once every 50-100 years), and reflected low-severity and moderate-severity fire regimes ¹. Fire frequency has been much lower in the last 100 years. Windstorms are an occasional disturbance, most important in the San Juan Islands and vicinity. Understories are sometimes browsed heavily by deer in the San Juan Islands, thus preventing dominance by deciduous shrubs and favoring grasses and forbs.

Succession and Stand Dynamics. Many of these forests and woodlands were formerly either grasslands or savannas that probably burned frequently, thus preventing dominance by trees ^{41, 54}. Some portions of this habitat in the central Puget Lowlands may have formerly been dominated by shrubs (salal, beaked hazel, evergreen huckleberry, hairy manzanita [Arctostaphylos columbiana]) for lengthy periods, probably also because of the particular combination of fire frequency and intensity. Other areas were woodlands to semi-open forests that burned moderately frequently, as evidenced by the relict stands of old-growth Douglas-fir. The dominant trees in this habitat establish most abundantly after fire. Moderate-severity fires kill many trees but also leave many alive, creating opportunities for establishment of new cohorts of trees and increasing structural complexity ¹. Oaks and madrone resprout after fire if they are top-killed. Without periodic fire, most oak-dominated stands will eventually convert to Douglas-fir forests ¹. Animal dissemination of acorns may be important in dispersal of oaks. Shore pine, where present, is an early-seral upper canopy species that grows quickly and dies out after about 100-150 years, yielding to a mature Douglas-fir stand unless another fire intervenes before the death of the pine.

Effects of Management and Anthropogenic Impacts. Clearcut or similar logging reduces canopy structural complexity and abundance of large woody debris. Dry Douglas-fir stands are well suited to alternative silvicultural practices, such as uneven-aged management or maintaining 2-storied stands. Oaks and madrone will typically resprout after logging and thus can increase in importance relative to conifers in mixed canopy stands. Selective logging of Douglas-fir in oak stands can prevent long-term loss of oak dominance. With fire exclusion, stands have probably increased in tree density and grassy understories have been replaced by deciduous shrubs ⁴¹. Moderate to heavy grazing or other significant ground disturbance, especially in grassy understories, leads to increases in non-native invader species, many of which are now abundant in stands with grassy or formerly grassy understories. Scot’s broom (Cytisus scoparius) is an exotic shrub particularly invasive and persistent in oak woodlands. Exotic herbaceous invaders include colonial bentgrass (Agrostis capillaris), common velvetgrass (Holcus lanatus), Kentucky bluegrass, tall oatgrass (Arrhenatherum elatius), rigid brome (Bromus rigidus), orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata), hedgehog dogtail (Cynosurus echinatus), tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea), and common St. Johnswort (Hypericum perforatum).

Status and Trends. This habitat is relatively limited in area and is currently declining in extent and condition. With the cessation of regular burning 100-130 years ago, many grasslands and savannas were invaded by a greater density of trees and thus converted to a different habitat. Conversely, large areas of this habitat have been converted to Urban or Agriculture habitats. Most of what remains has been considerably degraded by invasion of exotic species or by logging and consequent loss of structural diversity. Ongoing threats include residential development, increase and spread of exotic species, and fire suppression effects (the latter especially in oak-dominated stands). Thirteen of 27 plant associations listed in the National Vegetation Classification are considered globally imperiled or critically imperiled ¹⁰.

 

Christopher B. Chappell and Jimmy Kagan

Geographic Distribution. This upland forest and woodland habitat occurs in southwestern Oregon, northwestern California, and the Sierra Nevada. In southern Oregon, it is found at low and middle elevations in the Klamath Mountains, Cascades, Coast Range, and Eastern Cascade Slopes and Foothills ecoregions. Portions of Curry, Josephine, Jackson, Douglas, Lane, and Klamath counties are included in the range of this habitat.

Physical Setting. The climate varies from relatively dry and very warm to moderately moist and cool to slightly warm and very moist. Mean annual precipitation ranges from 20 to 140 inches (51 to 356 cm). Snow is uncommon except at the highest elevations, where a winter snow pack occurs for a few months. Summers are hot and dry. Elevation ranges from near sea level to 6,000 ft (1,829 m). Topography is mostly mountainous but also includes 2 fairly large valleys, and a corresponding variety of terrain. Soils are diverse as is the bedrock geology. Serpentine soils are common in portions of the Siskiyou Mountains, where they have a major effect on vegetation.

Landscape Setting. This habitat is typically bounded at its upper elevation limits by Montane Mixed Conifer Forest and at its lower limits, along the coast, by Westside Lowlands Conifer-Hardwood Forest. At lower elevations in the Rogue and Umpqua valleys it can be found in a mosaic with Westside Oak and Dry Douglas-fir Forest and Woodland, Ceanothus-Manzanita Shrublands, Urban, and Agriculture. Small inclusions of Open Water, Herbaceous Wetlands, Westside Riparian-Wetlands, and Ceanothus-Manzanita Shrublands occur scattered throughout this habitat. The predominant land use is forestry. Low-density residential is prominent in the Rogue and Umpqua valleys. Grazing occurs on some areas, especially at lower elevations.

Structure. Conifer trees typically dominate this forest or woodland habitat. In some generally more coastal areas, a well developed subcanopy layer of smaller evergreen broadleaf trees is present. Occasionally, deciduous broadleaf trees are co-dominant. Complex multi-layered canopies are typical, though single-layered canopies also occur, especially in areas of intensive forest management. Dominant canopy trees vary from 60 to >300 ft (18 to >91 m) tall at maturity. Large woody debris (snags and logs) is typically common, although variable. Understories are mostly dominated by shrubs, but can be dominated by forbs, graminoids, or may be largely depauperate.

Composition. The tree canopy is often diverse. Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), white fir (Abies concolor), sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana), ponderosa pine (P. ponderosa), or incense cedar (Calocedrus decurrens) are typically dominant or co-dominant. Port-Orford cedar (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana), tanoak (Lithocarpus densiflorus), canyon live oak (Quercus chrysolepis), and Pacific madrone (Arbutus menziesii) are locally important. Jeffrey pine (Pinus jeffreyi) is dominant on serpentine parent materials in the Siskiyou Mountains, and to a lesser degree in the southwestern Cascades.

Douglas-fir is found in almost every area; ponderosa pine is also found in most stands, although it has been declining with fire suppression. White fir, incense cedar , and sugar pine are common in mixed stands in the Cascades and central and eastern Siskiyous on all but the driest sites. White fir dominates the canopy in only the moist, cool sites at higher elevations, although it is the major tree regeneration in most areas. Jeffrey pine and knobcone pine (Pinus attenuata) are limited primarily to serpentine soils, which they dominate. Port-Orford cedar dominates some more moist sites near the coast and riparian and wetland habitats inland. Brewer’s spruce (Picea breweri) is an uncommon dominant at high elevations in the Siskiyous. The broadleaf subcanopy is most prominent on the western sides of the Coast Range and Siskiyous, where tanoak is most abundant, with Pacific madrone, golden chinquapin (Castanopsis chrysophylla), or canyon live oak also sometimes dominating the subcanopy. Coast redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) occurs only in a very small area near the coast in far southern Oregon.

Dominant or co-dominant evergreen shrubs include pinemat manzanita (Arctostaphylos nevadensis), green-leaf manzanita (A. patula), white-leaf manzanita (A. viscida), kinnikinnick (A. uva-ursi), Piper’s barberry (Mahonia piperiana), dwarf Oregongrape (M. nervosa), tobacco brush (Ceanothus velutinus), squawcarpet (C. prostratus), salal (Gaultheria shallon), deer oak (Quercus sadleriana), huckleberry oak (Q. vacciniifolia), snow bramble (Rubus nivalis), Pacific rhododendron (Rhododendron macrophyllum), and evergreen huckleberry (Vaccinium ovatum). Major deciduous shrubs are serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia), sticky currant (Ribes viscosissimum), oceanspray (Holodiscus discolor), creeping snowberry (Symphoricarpos mollis), baldhip rose (Rosa gymnocarpa), beaked hazel (Corylus cornuta), Rocky Mountain maple (Acer glabrum), vine maple (A. circinatum), poison-oak (Toxicodendron diversiloba), big huckleberry (Vaccinium membranaceum), deerbrush (Ceanothus integerrimus), and trailing blackberry (Rubus ursinus). Early seral shrublands, part of this habitat, can be difficult to distinguish from Ceanothus-Manzanita Shrublands. They are best separated by their different species composition, especially the predominance in this habitat of Ceanothus velutinus, Arctostaphylos patula, and A. nevadensis.

Graminoids that are most prominent are long-stolon sedge (Carex inops), Idaho fescue (Festuca idahoensis), and California fescue (F. californica). Forbs that are indicative of site conditions or dominate understories include common whipplea (Whipplea modesta), twinflower (Linnaea borealis), sidebells (Orthilia secunda), rattlesnake plantain (Goodyera oblongifolia), vanillaleaf (Achlys triphylla), beargrass (Xerophyllum tenax), and starry false solomonseal (Maianthemum stellata).

Other Classifications and Key References. This habitat includes the conifer-dominated forests and their successional seres within the Interior Valley, Mixed-Conifer, Mixed-Evergreen, and Abies concolor zones of southwestern Oregon, plus Redwood forests in the Picea sitchensis Zone ⁸⁸. It is also referred to as Klamath Mountains mixed evergreen forests and Sierran-type mixed conifer forests ⁸⁷; Pseudotsuga menziesii/hardwood forests and Abies concolor forests ¹; Mixed conifer forest No. 5, Redwood forest No. 6, California mixed evergreen forest No. 29, and Montane chaparral No. 34 ¹³⁶. The Oregon Gap II Project ¹²⁶ and Oregon Vegetation Landscape-Level Cover Types ¹²⁷ that would represent this type are the southwestern portion of the Douglas-fir dominant-mixed conifer forest, Jeffrey pine forest and woodland, serpentine conifer woodland, Douglas-fir-Port Orford cedar forest, Douglas-fir mixed deciduous forest, Douglas-fir-white fir/tanoak-madrone mixed forest, and Siskiyou Mountains mixed deciduous forest. Other references also describe this habitat ^{13, 15, 17, 111, 117}.

Natural Disturbance Regime. Fire is the predominant natural disturbance. Fire regime varies depending on environmental conditions.  Drier, hotter sites within this area have a low-severity fire regime. Cooler and/or moister sites typically have a moderate-severity fire regime. Presettlement mean fire return intervals vary from £10 years to about 80 years ^{1, 98, 154}. Lightning ignitions are more frequent here than anywhere else in the region and Native Americans probably burned some areas intentionally ¹. Wind is a somewhat important disturbance at higher elevations. Root rot fungi and insects are other important disturbances in some forests, mostly operating at small-scales.

Succession and Stand Dynamics. Most evergreen broadleaf trees, when present, are top-killed by moderate-severity fires but resprout vigorously to dominate or co-dominate after most fires ^{14, 152}. Mature Oregon white oak and canyon live oak can survive fairly hot fires if the fuels do not extend into the canopy. Conifers are at a disadvantage in regeneration following stand replacement fires because of dependence on local seed-fall. Many conifers of this habitat are able to survive moderate-severity fire well, including, in decreasing order of fire resistance, Ponderosa pine, Jeffrey pine, Douglas-fir, sugar pine, coast redwood, incense cedar, and Port-Orford cedar. These species are fairly well represented throughout the successional sequence, unless a high-severity fire was closely followed by another, in which case the subcanopy broadleaf species are likely to dominate ¹. Development of complex multi-layered canopies of conifers and broadleaf evergreens are typical under a moderate-severity fire regime.

Where hardwoods are absent and white fir is prominent, succession differs from that described above. Under a low-severity fire regime with frequent fires, white fir is relatively unimportant and fire-resistant conifers, especially Douglas-fir and ponderosa pine, dominate. White fir increases in the absence of fire ¹⁷¹. With a moderate-severity fire regime, i.e., less frequent fires, white fir can dominate or co-dominate, especially on cooler sites ¹. Small gaps created by moderate-severity fires, blowdown, or disease afford opportunities for regeneration of less shade-tolerant tree species, thus maintaining a diverse tree canopy for lengthy periods. Evergreen shrubs, especially tobacco brush, often dominate after high-severity fire and may persist as a cover type for decades, especially if they are reburned ^{51, 88}. On the driest, hottest sites in this habitat, white fir does not grow and tree regeneration is limited to Douglas-fir and ponderosa pine, with the former tending to increase in the absence of fire.

Effects of Management and Anthropogenic Impacts. Clearcut logging where hardwoods are present favors post-disturbance dominance of tanoak or madrone. Control of this competing vegetation has been a major focus of timber management in this habitat. Fire control over the last 100 years has decreased fire frequencies and altered stand structure through increases in small tree density and heavy fuels, especially where low-severity fire regimes were prevalent. As a result, most of these areas are more susceptible to stand-replacement fires. White fir has increased dramatically on drier sites where it occurs, creating dense subcanopy thickets ^{1, 128}. Evergreen shrubs often dominate after clearcut logging and in some cases hinder the establishment of conifers ¹⁴⁰. Clearcut logging tends to decrease tree species diversity, coarse woody debris loads, and structural diversity. The non-native species white pine blister rust (Cronartium ribicola) and Phytophthora lateralis, a root rot disease, have had significant negative impacts on the abundance of sugar pine and Port-Orford cedar, respectively.

Status and Trends. This habitat covers most of southwestern Oregon and has declined little in areal extent. Conditions of most communities and stands have been degraded by forestry practices and by fire suppression. The low-elevation, driest communities have been altered by grazing and invasion of exotic species. Port-Orford cedar has declined dramatically in extent from logging and Phytophthora lateralis ²³⁰. Effects of fire suppression and logging-related impacts continue to be threats. Twenty-one percent of 68 plant associations representing this habitat listed in the National Vegetation Classification are listed as imperiled ¹⁰.

Christopher B. Chappell

Geographic Distribution. These forests occur in mountains throughout Washington and Oregon, excepting the Basin and Range of southeastern Oregon. These include the Cascade Range, Olympic Mountains, Okanogan Highlands, Coast Range (rarely), Blue and Wallowa mountains, and Siskiyou Mountains.

Physical Setting. This habitat is typified by a moderate to deep winter snow pack that persists for 3 to 9 months. The climate is moderately cool and wet to moderately dry and very cold. Mean annual precipitation ranges from about 40 inches (102 cm) to >200 inches (508 cm). Elevation is mid- to upper montane, as low as 2,000 ft (610 m) in northern Washington, to as high as 7,500 ft (2,287 m) in southern Oregon. On the westside, it occupies an elevational zone of about 2,500 to 3,000 vertical feet (762 to 914 m), and on the eastside it occupies a narrower zone of about 1,500 vertical feet (457 m). Topography is generally mountainous. Soils are typically not well developed, but varied in their parent material: glacial till, volcanic ash, residuum, or colluvium. Spodosols are common.

Landscape Setting. This habitat is found adjacent to Westside Lowlands Conifer-Hardwood Forest, Eastside Mixed Conifer Forests, or Southwest Oregon Mixed Conifer-Hardwood Forest at its lower elevation limits and to Subalpine Parkland at its upper elevation limits. Inclusions of Montane Forested Wetlands, Westside Riparian Wetlands, and less commonly Open Water or Herbaceous Wetlands occur within the matrix of montane forest habitat. The typical land use is forestry or recreation. Most of this type is found on public lands managed for timber values and much of it has been harvested in a dispersed-patch pattern.

Structure. This is a forest, or rarely woodland, dominated by evergreen conifers. Canopy structure varies from single- to multi-storied. Tree size also varies from small to very large. Large snags and logs vary from abundant to uncommon. Understories vary in structure: shrubs, forbs, ferns, graminoids or some combination of these usually dominate, but they can be depauperate as well. Deciduous broadleaf shrubs are most typical as understory dominants. Early successional structure after logging or fire varies depending on understory species present. Mosses are a major ground cover and epiphytie lichens are typically abundant in the canopy.

Composition. This forest habitat is recognized by the dominance or prominence of 1 of the following species: Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis), mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana), subalpine fir (A. lasiocarpa), Shasta red fir (A. magnific var. shastensi), Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii), noble fir (A. procera), or Alaska yellow-cedar (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis). Several other trees may co-dominate: Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), western redcedar (Thuja plicata), or white fir (A. concolor). Tree regeneration is typically dominated by Pacific silver fir in moist westside middle-elevation zones; by mountain hemlock, sometimes with silver fir, in cool, very snowy zones on the westside and along the Cascade Crest; by subalpine fir in cold, drier eastside zones; and by Shasta red fir in the snowy mid- to upper-elevation zone of southwestern and south-central Oregon.

Subalpine fir and Engelmann spruce are major species only east of the Cascade Crest in Washington, in the Blue Mountains ecoregion, and in the northeastern Olympic Mountains (spruce is largely absent in the Olympic Mountains). Lodgepole pine is important east of the Cascade Crest throughout and in central and southern Oregon. Douglas-fir is important east of the Cascade Crest and at lower elevations on the westside. Pacific silver fir is a major species on the westside as far south as central Oregon. Noble fir, as a native species, is found primarily in the western Cascades from central Washington to central Oregon. Mountain hemlock is a common dominant at higher elevations along the Cascade Crest and to the west. Western hemlock, and to a lesser degree western redcedar, occur as dominants primarily with silver fir at lower elevations on the westside. Alaska yellow-cedar occurs as a co-dominant west of the Cascade Crest in Washington, rarely in northern Oregon. Shasta red fir and white fir occur only from central Oregon south, the latter mainly at lower elevations.

Deciduous shrubs that commonly dominate or co-dominate the understory are oval-leaf huckleberry (Vaccinium ovalifolium), big huckleberry (V. membranaceum), grouseberry (V. scoparium), dwarf huckleberry (V. cespitosum), fools huckleberry (Menziesia ferruginea), Cascade azalea (Rhododendron albiflorum), copperbush (Elliottia pyroliflorus), devil’s-club (Oplopanax horridus), and, in the far south only, baldhip rose (Rosa gymnocarpa), currants (Ribes spp.), and creeping snowberry (Symphoricarpos mollis). Important evergreen shrubs include salal (Gaultheria shallon), dwarf Oregongrape (Mahonia nervosa), Pacific rhododendron (Rhododendron macrophyllum), deer oak (Quercus sadleriana), pinemat manzanita (Arctostaphylos nevadensis), beargrass (Xerophyllum tenax), and Oregon boxwood (Paxistima myrsinites).

Graminoid dominants are found primarily just along the Cascade Crest and to the east and include pinegrass (Calamagrostis rubescens), Geyer’s sedge (Carex geyeri), smooth woodrush (Luzula glabrata var. hitchcockii), and long-stolon sedge (Carex inops). Deerfern (Blechnum spicant) and western oakfern (Gymnocarpium dryopteris) are commonly co-dominant. The most abundant forbs include Oregon oxalis (Oxalis oregana), single-leaf foamflower (Tiarella trifoliata var. unifoliata), rosy twisted-stalk (Streptopus roseus), queen’s cup (Clintonia uniflora), western bunchberry (Cornus unalaschkensis), twinflower (Linnaea borealis), prince’s pine (Chimaphila umbellata), five-leaved bramble (Rubus pedatus), and dwarf bramble (R. lasiococcus), sidebells (Orthilia secunda), avalanche lily (Erythronium montanum), Sitka valerian (Valeriana sitchensis), false lily-of-the-valley (Maianthemum dilatatum), and Idaho goldthread (Coptis occidentalis).

Other Classifications and Key References. This habitat includes most of the upland forests and their successional stages, except lodgepole pine dominated forests, in the Tsuga mertensiana, Abies amabilis, A. magnifica var. shastensis, A. lasiocarpa zones of Franklin and Dyrness ⁸⁸. Portions of this habitat have also been referred to as A. amabilis-Tsuga heterophylla forests, A. magnifica var. shastensis forests, and Tsuga mertensiana forests ⁸⁷. It is equivalent to Silver fir-Douglas-fir forest No. 3, closed portion of Fir-hemlock forest No. 4, Red fir forest No. 7, and closed portion of Western spruce-fir forest No. 15 ¹³⁶; The Oregon Gap II Project ¹²⁶ and Oregon Vegetation Landscape-Level Cover Types ¹²⁷ that would represent this type are mountain hemlock montane forest, true fir-hemlock montane forest, montane mixed conifer forest, Shasta red fir-mountain hemlock forest, and subalpine fir-lodgepole pine montane conifer; also most of the conifer forest in the Silver Fir, Mountain Hemlock, and Subalpine Fir Zones of Washington Gap ³⁷. A number of other references describe this habitat ^{13, 15, 17, 25, 26, 36, 38, 90, 108, 111, 114, 115, 118, 144, 148, 158, 212, 221}.

Natural Disturbance Regime. Fire is the major natural disturbance in this habitat. Fire regimes are primarily of the high-severity type ¹, but also include the moderate-severity regime (moderately frequent and highly variable) for Shasta red fir forests ³⁹. Mean fire-return intervals vary greatly, from ³800 years for some mountain hemlock-silver fir forests to about 40 years for red fir forests. Windstorms are a common small-scale disturbance and occasionally result in stand replacement. Insects and fungi are often important small-scale disturbances. However, they may affect larger areas also, for example, laminated root rot (Phellinus weirii) is a major natural disturbance, affecting large areas of mountain hemlock forests in the Oregon Cascades ⁷².

Succession and Stand Dynamics. After fire, a typical stand will briefly be occupied by annual and perennial ruderal forbs and grasses, as well as predisturbance understory shrubs and herbs that resprout. Stand initiation can take a long time, especially at higher elevations, resulting in shrub/herb dominance (with or without a scattered tree layer) for extended periods ^{3, 109}. Early seral tree species can be any of the potential dominants for the habitat, or lodgepole pine, depending on the environment, type of disturbance, and seed source. Fires tend to favor early seral dominance of lodgepole pine, Douglas-fir, noble fir, or Shasta red fir, if their seeds are present ¹. In some areas, large stand-replacement fires will result in conversion of this habitat to the Lodgepole Pine Forest and Woodland habitat, distinguished by dominance of lodgepole. After the tree canopy closes, the understory typically becomes sparse for a time. Eventually tree density will decrease and the understory will begin to flourish again, but this process takes longer than in lower elevation forests, generally at least 100 years after the disturbance, sometimes much longer ¹. As stand development proceeds, relatively shade-intolerant trees (lodgepole pine, Douglas-fir, western hemlock, noble fir, Engelmann spruce) typically decrease in importance and more shade-tolerant species (Pacific silver fir, subalpine fir, Shasta red fir, mountain hemlock) increase. Complex multi-layered canopies with large trees will typically take at least 300 years to develop, often much longer, and on some sites may never develop. Tree growth rates, and therefore the potential to develop these structural features, tend to decrease with increasing elevation.

Effects of Management and Anthropogenic Impacts. Forest management practices, such as clearcutting and plantations, have in many cases resulted in less diverse tree canopies with an emphasis on Douglas-fir. They also reduce coarse woody debris compared to natural levels, and truncate succession well before late-seral characteristics are expressed. Post-harvest regeneration of trees has been a perpetual problem for forest managers in much of this habitat ^{16, 97}. Planting of Douglas-fir has often failed at higher elevations, even where old Douglas-fir were present in the unmanaged stand ¹¹⁵. Slash burning often has negative impacts on productivity and regeneration ¹⁸⁶. Management has since shifted away from burning and toward planting noble fir or native species, natural regeneration, and advance regeneration ^{16, 103}. Noble fir plantations are now fairly common in managed landscapes, even outside the natural range of the species. Advance regeneration management tends to simulate wind disturbance but without the abundant downed wood component. Shelterwood cuts are a common management strategy in Engelmann spruce or subalpine fir stands ²²¹.

Status and Trends. This habitat occupies large areas of the region. There has probably been little or no decline in the extent of this type over time. Large areas of this habitat are relatively undisturbed by human impacts and include significant old-growth stands. Other areas have been extensively affected by logging, especially dispersed patch clearcuts. The habitat is stable in area, but is probably still declining in condition because of continued logging. This habitat is one of the best protected, with large areas represented in national parks and wilderness areas. The only threat is continued road building and clearcutting in unprotected areas. None of the 81 plant associations representing this habitat listed in the National Vegetation Classification is considered imperiled ¹⁰.

Geographic Distribution. The Eastside Mixed Conifer Forest habitat appears primarily the Blue Mountains, East Cascades, and Okanogan Highland Ecoregions of Oregon, Washington, adjacent Idaho, and western Montana. It also extends north into British Columbia.

Douglas-fir-ponderosa pine forests occur along the eastern slope of the Oregon and Washington Cascades, the Blue Mountains, and the Okanogan Highlands of Washington. Grand fir-Douglas-fir forests and western larch forests are widely distributed throughout the Blue Mountains and, lesser so, along the east slope of the Cascades south of Lake Chelan and in the eastern Okanogan Highlands. Western hemlock-western redcedar-Douglas-fir forests are found in the Selkirk Mountains of eastern Washington, and on the east slope of the Cascades south of Lake Chelan to the Columbia River Gorge.

Physical Setting. The Eastside Mixed Conifer Forest habitat is primarily mid-montane with an elevation range of between 1,000 and 7,000 ft (305-2,137 m), mostly between 3,000 and 5,500 ft (914-1,676 m). Parent materials for soil development vary. This habitat receives some of the greatest amounts of precipitation in the inland northwest, 30-80 inches (76-203 cm)/year. Elevation of this habitat varies geographically, with generally higher elevations to the east.

Landscape Setting. This habitat makes up most of the continuous montane forests of the inland Pacific Northwest. It is located between the subalpine portions of the Montane Mixed Conifer Forest habitat in eastern Oregon and Washington and lower tree line Ponderosa Pine and Forest and Woodlands.

Structure. Eastside Mixed Conifer habitats are montane forests and woodlands. Stand canopy structure is generally diverse, although single-layer forest canopies are currently more common than multilayered forests with snags and large woody debris. The tree layer varies from closed forests to more open-canopy forests or woodlands. This habitat may include very open stands. The undergrowth is complex and diverse. Tall shrubs, low shrubs, forbs or any combination may dominate stands. Deciduous shrubs typify shrub layers. Prolonged canopy closure may lead to development of a sparsely vegetated undergrowth.

Composition. This habitat contains a wide array of tree species (9) and stand dominance patterns. Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) is the most common tree species in this habitat. It is almost always present and dominates or co-dominates most overstories. Lower elevations or drier sites may have ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) as a co-dominant with Douglas-fir in the overstory and often have other shade-tolerant tree species growing in the undergrowth. On moist sites, grand fir (Abies grandis), western redcedar (Thuja plicata) and/or western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) are dominant or co-dominant with Douglas-fir. Other conifers include western larch (Larix occidentalis) and western white pine (Pinus monticola) on mesic sites, Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii), lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), and subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa) on colder sites. Rarely, Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia) may be an abundant undergrowth tree or tall shrub.

Undergrowth vegetation varies from open to nearly closed shrub thickets with 1 to many layers. Throughout the eastside conifer habitat, tall deciduous shrubs include vine maple (Acer circinatum) in the Cascades, Rocky Mountain maple (A. glabrum), serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia), oceanspray (Holodiscus discolor), mallowleaf ninebark (Physocarpus malvaceus), and Scouler’s willow (Salix scouleriana) at mid- to lower elevations. Medium-tall deciduous shrubs at higher elevations include fools huckleberry (Menziesia ferruginea), Cascade azalea (Rhododendron albiflorum), and big huckleberry (Vaccinium membranaceum). Widely distributed, generally drier site mid-height to short deciduous shrubs include baldhip rose (Rosa gymnocarpa), shiny-leaf spirea (Spiraea betulifolia), and snowberry (Symphoricarpos albus, S. mollis, and S. oreophilus). Low shrubs of higher elevations include low huckleberries (Vaccinium cespitosum, and V. scoparium) and five-leaved bramble (Rubus pedatus). Evergreen shrubs represented in this habitat are chinquapin (Castanopsis chrysophylla), a tall shrub in southeastern Cascades, low to mid-height dwarf Oregongrape (Mahonia nervosa in the east Cascades and M. repens elsewhere), tobacco brush (Ceanothus velutinus), an increaser with fire, Oregon boxwood (Paxistima myrsinites) generally at mid- to lower elevations, beargrass (Xerophyllum tenax), pinemat manzanita (Arctostaphylos nevadensis) and kinnikinnick (A. uva-ursi).

Herbaceous broadleaf plants are important indicators of site productivity and disturbance. Species generally indicating productive sites include western oakfern (Gymnocarpium dryopteris), vanillaleaf (Achlys triphylla), wild sarsparilla (Aralia nudicaulis), wild ginger (Asarum caudatum), queen’s cup (Clintonia uniflora), goldthread (Coptis occidentalis), false bugbane (Trautvetteria caroliniensis), windflower (Anemone oregana, A. piperi, A. lyallii), fairybells (Disporum hookeri), Sitka valerian (Valeriana sitchensis), and pioneer violet (Viola glabella). Other indicator forbs are dogbane (Apocynum androsaemifolium), false solomonseal (Maianthemum stellata), heartleaf arnica (Arnica cordifolia), several lupines (Lupinus caudatus, L. latifolius, L. argenteus ssp. argenteus var laxiflorus), western meadowrue (Thalictrum occidentale), rattlesnake plantain (Goodyera oblongifolia), skunkleaf polemonium (Polemonium pulcherrimum), trailplant (Adenocaulon bicolor), twinflower (Linnaea borealis), western starflower (Trientalis latifolia), and several wintergreens (Pyrola asarifolia, P. picta, Orthilia secunda).

Graminoids are common in this forest habitat. Columbia brome (Bromus vulgaris), oniongrass (Melica bulbosa), northwestern sedge (Carex concinnoides) and western fescue (Festuca occidentalis) are found mostly in mesic forests with shrubs or mixed with forb species. Bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata), Idaho fescue (Festuca idahoensis), and junegrass (Koeleria macrantha) are found in drier more open forests or woodlands. Pinegrass (Calamagrostis rubescens) and Geyer’s sedge (C. geyeri) can form a dense layer under Douglas-fir or grand fir trees.

Other Classifications and Key References. This habitat includes the moist portions of the Pseudotsuga menziesii, the Abies grandis, and the Tsuga heterophylla zones of eastern Oregon and Washington ⁸⁸. This habitat is called Douglas-fir (No. 12), Cedar-Hemlock-Pine (No. 13), and Grand fir-Douglas-fir (No. 14) forests in Kuchler ¹³⁶. The Oregon Gap II Project ¹²⁶ and Oregon Vegetation Landscape-Level Cover Types ¹²⁷ that would represent this type are the eastside Douglas-fir dominant-mixed conifer forest, ponderosa pine dominant mixed conifer forest, and the northeast Oregon mixed conifer forest. Quigley and Arbelbide ¹⁸¹ referred to this habitat as Grand fir/White fir, the Interior Douglas-fir, Western larch, Western redcedar/Western hemlock, and Western white pine cover types and the Moist Forest potential vegetation group. Other references detail forest associations for this habitat ^{45, 59, 117, 118, 123, 122, 144, 148, 208, 209, 212, 221, 228}.

Natural Disturbance Regime. Fires were probably of moderate frequency (30-100 years) in presettlement times. Inland Pacific Northwest Douglas-fir and western larch forests have a mean fire interval of 52 years ²². Typically, stand-replacement fire-return intervals are 150-500 years with moderate severity-fire intervals of 50-100 years. Specific fire influences vary with site characteristics. Generally, wetter sites burn less frequently and stands are older with more western hemlock and western redcedar than drier sites. Many sites dominated by Douglas-fir and ponderosa pine, which were formerly maintained by wildfire, may now be dominated by grand fir (a fire sensitive, shade-tolerant species).

Succession and Stand Dynamics. Successional relationships of this type reflect complex interrelationships between site potential, plant species characteristics, and disturbance regime ²²⁸. Generally, early seral forests of shade-intolerant trees (western larch, western white pine, ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir) or tolerant trees (grand fir, western redcedar, western hemlock) develop some 50 years following disturbance. This stage is preceded by forb- or shrub- dominated communities. These early stage mosaics are maintained on ridges and drier topographic positions by frequent fires. Early seral forest develops into mid-seral habitat of large trees during the next 50-100 years. Stand replacing fires recycle this stage back to early seral stages over most of the landscape. Without high-severity fires, a late-seral condition develops either single-layer or multilayer structure during the next 100-200 years. These structures are typical of cool bottomlands that usually only experience low-intensity fires.

Effects of Management and Anthropogenic Impacts. This habitat has been most affected by timber harvesting and fire suppression. Timber harvesting has focused on large shade-intolerant species in mid- and late-seral forests, leaving shade-tolerant species. Fire suppression enforces those logging priorities by promoting less fire-resistant, shade-intolerant trees. The resultant stands at all seral stages tend to lack snags, have high tree density, and are composed of smaller and more shade-tolerant trees. Mid-seral forest structure is currently 70% more abundant than in historical, native systems ¹⁸¹. Late-seral forests of shade-intolerant species are now essentially absent. Early-seral forest abundance is similar to that found historically but lacks snags and other legacy features.

Status and Trends. Quigley and Arbelbide ¹⁸¹ concluded that the Interior Douglas-fir, Grand fir, and Western redcedar/Western hemlock cover types are more abundant now than before 1900, whereas the Western larch and Western white pine types are significantly less abundant. Twenty percent of Pacific Northwest Douglas-fir, grand fir, western redcedar, western hemlock, and western white pine associations listed in the National Vegetation Classification are considered imperiled or critically imperiled ¹⁰. Roads, timber harvest, periodic grazing, and altered fire regimes have compromised these forests. Even though this habitat is more extensive than pre-1900, natural processes and functions have been modified enough to alter its natural status as functional habitat for many species.

Geographic Distribution. This habitat is found along the eastside of the Cascade Range, in the Blue Mountains, the Okanogan Highlands and ranges north into British Columbia and south to Colorado and California.

With grassy undergrowth, this habitat appears primarily along the eastern slope of the Cascade Range and occasionally in the Blue Mountains and Okanogan Highlands. Subalpine lodgepole pine habitat occurs on the broad plateau areas along the crest of the Cascade Range and the Blue Mountains, and in the higher elevations in the Okanogan Highlands. On pumice soils this habitat is confined to the eastern slope of the Cascade Range from near Mt. Jefferson south to the vicinity of Crater Lake.

Physical Setting. This habitat is located mostly at mid- to higher elevations (3,000-9,000 ft [914-2,743 m]). These environments can be cold and relatively dry, usually with persistent winter snowpack. A few of these forests occur in low-lying frost pockets, wet areas, or under edaphic control (usually pumice) and are relatively long-lasting features of the landscape. Lodgepole pine is maintained as a dominant by the well-drained, deep Mazama pumice in eastern Oregon.

Landscape Setting. This habitat appears within Montane Mixed Conifer Forest east of the Cascade crest and the cooler Eastside Mixed Conifer Forest habitats. Most pumice soil lodgepole pine habitat is intermixed with Ponderosa Pine Forest and Woodland habitats and is located between Eastside Mixed Conifer Forest habitat and either Western Juniper Woodland or Shrub-steppe habitat.

Structure. The lodgepole pine habitat is composed of open to closed evergreen conifer tree canopies. Vertical structure is typically a single tree layer. Reproduction of other more shade-tolerant conifers can be abundant in the undergrowth. Several distinct undergrowth types develop under the tree layer: evergreen or deciduous medium-tall shrubs, evergreen low shrub, or graminoids with few shrubs. On pumice soils, a sparsely developed shrub and graminoid undergrowth appears with open to closed tree canopies.

Composition. The tree layer of this habitat is dominated by lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var. latifolia and P. c. var. murrayana), but it is usually associated with other montane conifers (Abies concolor, A. grandis, A. magnifici var. shastensi, Larix occidentalis, Calocedrus decurrens, Pinus lambertiana, P. monticola, P. ponderosa, Pseudotsuga menziesii). Subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa), mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana), Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii), and whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis), indicators of subalpine environments, are present in colder or higher sites. Quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) sometimes occur in small numbers.

Shrubs can dominate the undergrowth. Tall deciduous shrubs include Rocky Mountain maple (Acer glabrum), serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia), oceanspray (Holodiscus discolor), or Scouler’s willow (Salix scouleriana). These tall shrubs often occur over a layer of mid-height deciduous shrubs such as baldhip rose (Rosa gymnocarpa), russet buffaloberry (Shepherdia canadensis), shiny-leaf spirea (Spiraea betulifolia), and snowberry (Symphoricarpos albus and/or S. mollis). At higher elevations, big huckleberry (Vaccinium membranaceum) can be locally important, particularly following fire. Mid-tall evergreen shrubs can be abundant in some stands, for example, creeping Oregongrape (Mahonia repens), tobacco brush (Ceanothus velutinus), and Oregon boxwood (Paxistima myrsinites). Colder and drier sites support low- growing evergreen shrubs, such as kinnikinnick (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi) or pinemat manzanita (A. nevadensis). Grouseberry (V. scoparium) and beargrass (Xerophyllum tenax) are consistent evergreen low shrub dominants in the subalpine part of this habitat. Manzanita (Arctostaphylos patula), kinnikinnick, tobacco brush, antelope bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata), and wax current (Ribes cereum) are part of this habitat on pumice soil.

Some undergrowth is dominated by graminoids with few shrubs. Pinegrass (Calamagrostis rubescens) and/or Geyer’s sedge (Carex geyeri) can appear with grouseberry in the subalpine zone. Pumice soils support grassy undergrowth of long-stolon sedge (C. inops), Idaho fescue (Festuca idahoensis) or western needlegrass (Stipa occidentalis). The latter 2 species may occur with bitterbrush or big sagebrush and other bunchgrass steppe species. Other nondominant indicator graminoids frequently encountered in this habitat are California oatgrass (Danthonia californica), blue wildrye (Elymus glaucus), Columbia brome (Bromus vulgaris) and oniongrass (Melica bulbosa). Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), and bottlebrush squirreltail (Elymus elymoides) can be locally abundant where livestock grazing has persisted.

The forb component of this habitat is diverse and varies with environmental conditions. A partial forb list includes goldthread (Coptis occidentalis), false solomonseal (Maianthemum stellata), heartleaf arnica (Arnica cordifolia), several lupines (Lupinus caudatus, L. latifolius, L. argenteus ssp. argenteus var. laxiflorus), meadowrue (Thalictrum occidentale), queen’s cup (Clintonia uniflora), rattlesnake plantain (Goodyera oblongifolia), skunkleaf polemonium (Polemonium pulcherrimum), trailplant (Adenocaulon bicolor), twinflower (Linnaea borealis), Sitka valerian (Valeriana sitchensis), western starflower (Trientalis latifolia), and several wintergreens (Pyrola asarifolia, P. picta, Orthilia secunda).

Other Classifications and Key References. The Lodgepole Pine Forest and Woodland habitat includes the Pinus contorta zone of eastern Oregon and Washington ⁸⁸. The Oregon Gap II Project ¹²⁶ and Oregon Vegetation Landscape-Level Cover Type ¹²⁷ that would represent this type is lodgepole pine forest and woodlands. Quigley and Arbelbide ¹⁸¹ referred to this habitat as Lodgepole pine cover type and as a part of the Dry Forest potential vegetation group. Other references detail forest associations with this habitat ^{117, 118, 122, 123, 144, 212, 221}.

Natural Disturbance Regime. This habitat typically reflects early successional forest vegetation that originated with fires. Inland Pacific Northwest lodgepole pine has a mean fire interval of 112 years ²². Summer drought areas generally have low to medium-intensity ground fires occurring at intervals of 25-50 years, whereas areas with more moisture have a sparse undergrowth and slow fuel build-up that results in less frequent, more intense fire. With time, lodgepole pine stands increase in fuel loads. Woody fuels accumulate on the forest floor from insect (mountain pine beetle) and disease outbreaks and residual wood from past fires. Mountain pine beetle outbreaks thin stands that add fuel and create a drier environment for fire or open canopies and create gaps for other conifer regeneration. High-severity crown fires are likely in young stands, when the tree crowns are near deadwood on the ground. After the stand opens up, shade-tolerant trees increase in number.

Succession and Stand Dynamics. Most Lodgepole Pine Forest and Woodlands are early- to mid seral stages initiated by fire. Typically, lodgepole pine establishes within 10-20 years after fire. This can be a gap phase process where seed sources are scarce. Lodgepole stands break up after 100-200 years. Without fires and insects, stands become more closed-canopy forest with sparse undergrowth. Because lodgepole pine cannot reproduce under its own canopy, old unburned stands are replaced by shade-tolerant conifers. Lodgepole pine on pumice soils is not seral to other tree species; these extensive stands, if not burned, thin naturally, with lodgepole pine regenerating in patches. On poorly drained pumice soils, quaking aspen sometimes plays a mid-seral role and is displaced by lodgepole when aspen clones die. Serotinous cones (cones releasing seeds after fire) are uncommon in eastern Oregon lodgepole pine (P. c. var. murrayana). On the Colville National Forest in Washington, only 10% of lodgepole pine (P. c. var. latifolia) trees in low-elevation Douglas-fir habitats had serotinous cones, whereas 82% of cones in high-elevation subalpine fir habitats were serotinous ⁴.

Effects of Management and Anthropogenic Impacts. Fire suppression has left many single- canopy lodgepole pine habitats unburned to develop into more multilayered stands. Thinning of serotinous lodgepole pine forests with fire intervals <20 years can reduce their importance over time. In pumice-soil lodgepole stands, lack of natural regeneration in harvest units has lead to creation of "pumice deserts" within otherwise forested habitats ⁴⁷.

Status and Trends. Quigley and Arbelbide ¹⁸¹ concluded that the extent of the lodgepole pine cover type in Oregon and Washington is the same as before 1900 and in regions may exceed its historical extent. Five percent of Pacific Northwest lodgepole pine associations listed in the National Vegetation Classification are considered imperiled ¹⁰. At a finer scale, these forests have been fragmented by roads, timber harvest, and influenced by periodic livestock grazing and altered fire regimes.

Geographic Distribution. This habitat occurs in much of eastern Washington and eastern Oregon, including the eastern slopes of the Cascades, the Blue MOuntains and foothills, and the Okanogan Highlands. Variants of it also occur in the Rocky MOuntains, the eastern Sierra Nevada, and mountains within the Great Basin. It extends into south-central British Columbia as well.

In the Pacific Northwest, ponderosa pine-Douglas-fir woodland habitats occur along the eastern slope of the Cascades, the Okanogan Highlands, and in the Blue Mountains. Ponderosa pine woodland and savanna habitats occur in the foothills of the Blue Mountains, along the eastern base of the Cascade Range, the Okanogan Highlands, and in the Columbia Basin in northeastern Washington. Ponderosa pine is widespread in the pumice zone of south-central Oregon between Bend and Crater Lake east of the Cascade Crest. Ponderosa pine-Oregon white oak habitat appears east of the Cascades in the vicinity of Mt. Hood near the Columbia River Gorge north to the Yakama Nation and south to the Warm Springs Nation. Oak dominated woodlands follow a similar distribution as Ponderosa Pine-White Oak habitat but are more restricted and less common.

Physical Setting. This habitat generally occurs on the driest sites supporting conifers in the Pacific Northwest. It is widespread and variable, appearing on moderate to steep slopes in canyons, foothills, and on plateaus or plains near mountains. In Oregon, this habitat can be maintained by the dry pumice soils, and in Washington it can be associated with serpentine soils. Average annual precipitation ranges from about 14 to 30 inches (36 to 76 cm) on ponderosa pine sites in Oregon and Washington and often as snow. This habitat can be found at elevations of 100 ft (30m) in the Columbia River Gorge to dry, warm areas over 6,000 ft (1,829 m). Timber harvest, livestock grazing, and pockets of urban development are major land uses.

Landscape Setting. This woodland habitat typifies the lower treeline zone forming transitions with Eastside Mixed Conifer Forest and Western Juniper and Mountain Mahogany Woodland, Shrubsteppe, Eastside Grassland, or Agriculture habitats. Douglas-fir-ponderosa pine woodlands are found near or within the Eastside Mixed Conifer Forest habitat. Oregon oak woodlands appear in the driest most restricted landscapes in transition to Eastside Grassland or Shrubsteppe.

Structure. This habitat is typically a woodland or savanna with tree canopy coverage of 10- 60%, although closed-canopy stands are possible. The tree layer is usually composed of widely spaced large conifer trees. Many stands tend towards a multilayered condition with encroaching conifer regeneration. Isolated taller conifers above broadleaf deciduous trees characterize part of this habitat. Deciduous woodlands or forests are an important part of the structural variety of this habitat. Clonal deciduous trees can create dense patches across a grassy landscape rather than scattered individual trees. The undergrowth may include dense stands of shrubs or, more often, be dominated by grasses, sedges, or forbs. Shrubsteppe shrubs may be prominent in some stands and create a distinct tree-shrub-sparse-grassland habitat.

Composition. Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) and Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) are the most common evergreen trees in this habitat. The deciduous conifer, western larch (Larix occidentalis), can be a co-dominant with the evergreen conifers in the Blue Mountains of Oregon, but seldom as a canopy dominant. Grand fir (Abies grandis) may be frequent in the undergrowth on more productive sites giving stands a multilayer structure. In rare instances, grand fir can be co-dominant in the upper canopy. Tall ponderosa pine over Oregon white oak (Quercus garryana) trees form stands along part of the east Cascades. These stands usually have younger cohorts of pines. Oregon white oak dominates open woodlands or savannas in limited areas.

The undergrowth can include dense stands of shrubs or, more often, be dominated by grasses, sedges, and/or forbs. Some Douglas-fir and ponderosa pine stands have a tall to medium-tall deciduous shrub layer of mallowleaf ninebark (Physocarpus malvaceus) or common snowberry (Symphoricarpos albus). Grand fir seedlings or saplings may be present in the undergrowth. Pumice soils support a shrub layer represented by green-leaf or white-leaf manzanita (Arctostaphylos patula or A. viscida). Short shrubs, pinemat manzanita (Arctostaphylos nevadensis) and kinnikinnick (A. uva-ursi) are found across the range of this habitat. Antelope bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata), big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata), black sagebrush (A. nova), green rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus), and in southern Oregon, curl-leaf mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus ledifolius) often grow with Douglas-fir, ponderosa pine and/or Oregon white oak, which typically have a bunchgrass and shrubsteppe ground cover.

Undergrowth is generally dominated by herbaceous species, especially graminoids. Within a forest matrix, these woodland habitats have an open to closed sodgrass undergrowth dominated by pinegrass (Calamagrostis rubescens), Geyer’s sedge (Carex geyeri), Ross’ sedge (C. rossii), long-stolon sedge (C. inops), or blue wildrye (Elymus glaucus). Drier savanna and woodland undergrowth typically contains bunchgrass steppe species, such as Idaho fescue (Festuca idahoensis), rough fescue (F. campestris), bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata), Indian ricegrass (Oryzopsis hy